The end result is a more nuanced and extended theory of power in society with elements of motivation at the individual and group level. Similarly, Josh Pacewicz (2016) shows how the old rich partisans made philanthropic gifts to keep town members in their debt, but these donations are small fractions of their total wealth. But until that day, accept this justice as a gift on my daughters wedding day.. Inequality and the Self: Exploring Connections from an Interactionist Perspective Leon Anderson Ohio University David A. Not all interaction is bargaining, and if someone in our personal lives is constantly keeping score and pursuing the maximum goods and services in our relationships, we most often regard this person as a taker who is too instrumentally interested in outcomes in a friendship relationship. However, a weak norm of generalized reciprocity (i.e., restricted exchange) will create weaker social bonds. Schwalbe et al.s (2000) view of blockages goes beyond Merton to state that higher elites impose oppressive othering on low status people through emotion, discrimination, and self-processes of internalization or counter-othering. . Second, Beverly Johnson comes from an ethnic and lower-middle-class family and marries a man whose family has a prominent background. We do not have to trade caring for power, and for the most part, we can see these two forces as being consubstantial in society. Unlike the functionalist and conflict views, it does not try to explain why we have stratification in the first place. Sometimes these exchanges are made more long-term, but they are carefully guarded by contracts assuring each partys interests are protected. However, when groups are involved in strategic action then these calculations, in as much as they can be made, become quite important. This type of exchange is favored by rational choice proponents and economists who see it as the paramount exchange that exists in markets. Most often, more distant others are in restricted exchange relationships. They are not as subordinated as those with degraded status, and they may achieve some limited mobility. Their internalizations are highly manipulative and can often be violent because they are located closest to the boundary between high and low status, and they know it. For instance, Anselm Strauss (1978; Strauss et al. The symbolic interaction theory basically addresses two issues. Their generalized others will have fewer long-term relationships and rely on a constant influx of new exchangers. The middle category of high and low status persons could move up or down depending on the circumstances. Among her husbands business associates, it consists of being the life of the party and maintaining long-term friendships with business associates. He questions George Herbert Mead's predication of symbolic interaction as being based on "sociation," which is the general consensual pursuit of cooperate social relations. We will refer to those who operate with more restricted exchange as opportunists in the next chapter on citizen selves. In row 5 (items 13, 14, and 15) people may be of low rank because of accidents or bad luck. Inequality and Social Mobility in Symbolic Interactionism. The other form of strategic exchange is much narrower in scope and as a result it is called restricted exchange. And lastly, Joseph P. Kennedy was the son of a successful Irish businessman. But again, the social mobility boundary is fought most between row 3 of the vulnerable high-status people, and row 6 of the discriminated against but talented low-status persons. The two types of behavior have two different types of exchange. Generalized exchange looks to the betterment of the group as a whole, while restricted exchange is about the individual gaining for themselves. Their chances of positive mobility are greater. The firm of Wilson and Wilson become quite successful, and eventually the younger brothers and two children who become lawyers then expand the business to six other states. Generally, the talents or genius for bridging capital of a rising executive will need to be stronger than those rising through bonding capital in family promotion. We focus on how an interactionist analysis of emotions has. In a formula this might be: Your Power = 1 / Others dependencies on you, The others power = 1 / Your dependencies on the other, Relative power in = (Your power) (Others power). Third, there are individual to societal exchanges whereby an individual agrees to various terms with a larger societal group. He questions George Herbert Meads predication of symbolic interaction as being based on sociation, which is the general consensual pursuit of cooperate social relations. Schwalbe et al. The same would apply to group exchange. In the end, I conclude that both Athens and Mead are right but both are also incomplete. There are also many examples of people gaining great wealth or political influence through more restricted exchange. However, Strauss does not go far with this conception of bargaining as it might appear in political action. For instance, if the exchange takes place repeatedly over time, norms evolve about the relationship. Instead Athens prefers to see the pursuit of power as the basic motivating force for human beings and their groups. However, this negotiation is rather loose and not involved with a formal assessment of power. More market exchange, often among strangers, is restricted exchange where one expects immediate payback. Afterwards, he says that no payment is necessary, but: Someday, and that day may never come, I will call upon you to do a service for me. It is also discussed in a rather ethnomethodological form in Josh Pacewiczs Partisans and Partners (2016), though the gift relationship large resembles these other generalized exchange forms. In table 5.1, I present eleven different exchange relationships divided between restricted and generalized exchange, but I will only go over the main points. How does symbolic interaction theory explain inequality? Oppressive othering penetrates the generalized other of Mead and indicates that people may promote or justify their positions in society by providing looking glass-self messages to others that they are inferior, inept, unworthy or otherwise inferior to themselves. Closer relationships like kin and close friends are more often in a generalized exchange relationship with a high degree of bonding in long-term relationships. For example, consider the following: In Chapel Hill in the early 2000s, an African-American nurse promises to buy her daughter a dress for the prom, but her choice at a reasonable price at the department store is deemed mundane by her daughter. [1] I use exchange theory since it is better suited to my purposes than Collins rather short discussion of power and status rituals (2002: 111-114; 348-349). They see four factors as being important in the creation of inequality: oppressive othering, boundary maintenance, emotion management, and subordinate adaptations (Schwalbe et al. Generalized exchange was promoted by Malinowskis Kula Exchange in The Argonauts of the Western Pacific, and by studies of gift exchange with specified shells as the gift. Group to group generalized exchange can occur also through mutually exclusive groups (item 10) or overlapping groups (item 11). This does not mean that all social mobility in families is tied to generalized exchange. Oppressive othering has been largely ignored as a general social process though labeling theory comes close to it. The mother reluctantly buys the dress for the ecstatic daughter, but angrily tells her mother (the daughters grandmother) that the scion has underpaid you for years, and that this is exactly what keeps us in our place.. Oppressive othering has been largely ignored as a general social process though labeling theory comes close to it. This section interrogates the concept of power and its weak presence in symbolic interactionist theory, and then goes into the theorys conceptions of inequality. It argues that reality is simply what people make it to be through their interpretation of interactions.. Constructivists believe that people have created social constructs based on their relationship to others, and the social constructs that have lasted over time are now the symbols . For instance, Anselm Strauss (1978; Strauss et al. Eventually, they become upper-middle class by maintaining both their kinship and business ties by emphasizing positive family and business generalized others. Their motto, Wilson and Wilson, For the People dominates the airwaves on TV and the internet decrying the greed of insurance companies. One might say that this looks a bit like Robert Mertons theory of deviance (1938); however, the big difference is that Merton focused on blockages that exist but said little about the motivation and process by which they are accepted or overcome, and nothing about the emotions that they generate. Restricted and generalized exchange relate to how generalized others are constructed. The mother reluctantly buys the dress for the ecstatic daughter, but angrily tells her mother (the daughters grandmother) that the scion has underpaid you for years, and that this is exactly what keeps us in our place.. However, in this book, I find that they can be profitably put together or synthesized. When people engage in sociation often with generalized exchange they are interacting according to the process of sociation. But when people engage in strategic interaction they are following interaction through power, which may be conscious by tough negotiators or may have been socialized into them through violentization. And further, there are processes in between. All too often, the processes of the generalized other are portrayed as supportive othering such as mothers and fathers interacting with their children in the socialization process. These people are very self-confident and quite connected. In a way, symbolic interactionism is a liberating and emancipating force Similarly, powerful groups of people or structure can impose their will upon others with complete disregard for social beliefs. This is presented in table 5.2 along with material from Jonathan Turner and Jan Stets (2004). Trust may develop. The grandmother mentions the specific dress that the young girl wants at the most expensive boutique in town, and the scion she works for says, I know the owner of the store; I can talk to her. The grandmother then tells her granddaughter that the dress has been marked down by 70% of the original price so that it is the same price as the department store dress. The grandmother mentions the specific dress that the young girl wants at the most expensive boutique in town, and the scion she works for says, I know the owner of the store; I can talk to her. The grandmother then tells her granddaughter that the dress has been marked down by 70% of the original price so that it is the same price as the department store dress. Most often, more distant others are in restricted exchange relationships. Generally, the talents or genius for bridging capital of a rising executive will need to be stronger than those rising through bonding capital in family promotion. But on the other hand, the one large factory owner who does not give to the community was ostracized from society and politics. Social exchange is more generalized exchange as one might pursue in ones family or friend network. Restricted and generalized exchange relate to how generalized others are constructed. This section interrogates the concept of power and its weak presence in symbolic interactionist theory, and then goes into the theorys conceptions of inequality. For an auto example, Ford Motor Company has had many Ford family members running the company; however, General Motors has had only one Sloan in the form of Alfred P. Sloan who had no children and his foundation operates on the East Coast. And the subordinates react to oppressive othering in a number of different ways. Sometimes these exchanges are made more long-term, but they are carefully guarded by contracts assuring each partys interests are protected. Instead Athens prefers to see the pursuit of power as the basic motivating force for human beings and their groups. They are not as subordinated as those with degraded status, and they may achieve some limited mobility. And the Kennedy example, which of course is well known, shows how promotion can even lead to the Presidency of the United States. Power and Inequality in Symbolic Interaction, Social Psychology of Citizens and Subjects: Generalized Others and the Pathways to Inequality and Social Structure, Symbolic Interactionist Theory Revised for Political Sociology, Interactional Ritual Chains and Differential Association, From Generalized Others to Social Networks and Groups to Social Structure and Culture. Social networks of kin and association in social mobility settings can occur in different formats according to bonding and bridging capital. Not all interaction is bargaining, and if someone in our personal lives is constantly keeping score and pursuing the maximum goods and services in our relationships, we most often regard this person as a taker who is too instrumentally interested in outcomes in a friendship relationship. In network terms, these processes are more reliant on strong ties than weak ties (Granovetter 1973). This is certainly relevant to the discussion of masculinity and femininity, because the characteristics and practices of both are socially constructed, reproduced, and reinforced through daily . More market exchange, often among strangers, is restricted exchange where one expects immediate payback. Thus, social mobility is not just achieving skills by merit, but it is also about self-work or personhood about countering and converting elite processes of oppressive othering with generalized others. Their internalizations are highly manipulative and can often be violent because they are located closest to the boundary between high and low status, and they know it. However, in this book, I find that they can be profitably put together or synthesized. The end result is a more nuanced and extended theory of power in society with elements of motivation at the individual and group level. In restricted exchange, there are six different types from individual to various types of group and societal exchanges (1, 3 to 6 in Table 5.1) (Ekeh 1974: 46-52; Janoski 1998: 77-82). The other form of strategic exchange is much narrower in scope and as a result it is called restricted exchange. And the subordinates react to oppressive othering in a number of different ways. We discussed in class today that "Symbolic interactionism" is how gender differences are reinforced and institutionalized through the process of "socialization". They engage in counter-othering which is the angry rejection of the imposed reflected appraisals of high-status people that intend to demean and reject them. [2] Later on, Don Corleone does call in the favor to take care of a dead body using the mans funeral parlor. Our chapter explores the contributions of symbolic interactionism as a theoretical perspective in sociological studies of emotions. Symbolic interaction theory analyzes society by addressing the subjective meanings that people impose on objects, events, and behaviors. Fourth, there are two kinds of group-to-group exchange. While they may have their differences, they show a lot of similarities when comparing certain traits within a certain theory including the economic inequality, deviance and gender as discussed above. However, theories of political sociology cannot assume unrelenting social mobility for everyone since most social mobility is relational. First, in chain exchange (item 7) one person gives to another who then gives to a third party, and this continues to include more and more people as in pay it forward. Second, there are individual to closed group and open group exchanges (items 8 and 9). Closer relationships like kin and close friends are more often in a generalized exchange relationship with a high degree of bonding in long-term relationships. This section interrogates the concept of power and its weak presence in symbolic interactionist theory, and then goes into the theory's conceptions of inequality. Symbolic interactionism and the concept of power Symbolic interactionism and the concept of power . First, Helen Hilton marries a musician who then becomes a factory worker. Much of this type of exchange is linked to rational action as per Max Webers concepts of rationality. Instead Athens prefers to see the pursuit of power as the basic motivating force for human beings and their groups. 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