), Whether they produced battlefield images of the dead or daguerreotype portraits of common soldiers, []. What was conjecture with him, is now a realized fact. [4], If we consider these two images of the inaugurationone a photograph and the other a color lithographwe see people of all ages including some Black figures gathered around the Capitol building in Montgomery, Alabama. There is an abundance of textual evidence to support this, perhaps most famously an address given by Alexander Stephens known as the Cornerstone Speech. Stephens, the Vice President of the newly formed Confederate States of America (also known as the Confederacy) delivered the address to a crowd in Savannah, Georgia, at a critical moment: March 1861, just weeks after the inauguration of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States. Confederate forces reduced the fort to a ruin, and U.S. soldiers evacuated. What do works of art reveal about the deep divisions that led to the Civil War? Douglas won only Missouri and a portion of New Jersey. Be perfectly prepared on time with an individual plan. 5052. States' Rights vs. the Federal Government also created a deep divide between the North and the South, some believed that the state should hold power over Federal Law, but many others disagreed. We was a conservative republican who disagreed with slavery. The human cost is the greatest in U.S. history: around 620,000 people lost their lives. Some abolitionists actively helped runaway slaves to escape via the Underground Railroad, and there were instances in which men, even lawmen, sent to retrieve runaways were attacked and beaten by abolitionist mobs. DeBow, J.D.B. A forced displacement of around 60,000 Native American peoples. Historians today widely agree that slavery was the single most important cause of the Civil War. The English Civil Wars are traditionally considered to . Jefferson in his forecast had anticipated this, as the "rock upon which the old Union would split." He was right. The last one, Tennessee, did not depart until June 8, nearly a week after the first land battle had been fought at Philippi in Western Virginia. By end of the war, the United States had defeated the Confederacy, more than 750,000 Americans had died, and slavery had been banned everywhere in the United States through a Constitutional amendment. [1] Speech of Hon. Why did the Whig Party refer to Andrew Jackson as King Andrew? The abolitionists came with a variety of viewpoints. What was the name of the first Republican president? Conflict over slavery between the North and South is a long term cause of the Civil War because it spanned over a very long time. Though it was often supported throughout the social and economic classes, not every White Southerner enslaved people. It was rumored that Abraham Lincoln won the 3rd ballot due to _______. Washington DC: Government Printing Office, 1864. In 1964 an Ohio woman took up the challenge that had led to Amelia Earharts disappearance. [3] John C. Calhoun, Slavery as a Positive Good, 1837. The wardivided the country between the North and South. Hence the need for slavery in the North started to dwindle. Secession, as it applies to the outbreak of the American Civil War, comprises the series of events that began on December 20, 1860, and extended through June 8 of the next year when eleven states . This created an economy deeply threatened by the oncoming rise of Abolitionism in the Northern states. (Brown denied this at his trial, but evidence indicated otherwise.) The immediate cause of the Civil War was the attack on Fort Sumter by Confederate batteries in April of 1861. Causes of the Civil War - learn & understand it online History US History Causes of the Civil War Causes of the Civil War Birth of a Nation Civil Rights Activists Civil Rights Acts of 1866 Civil Rights Legislations Civil Rights Organizations Civil Rights Protests Civil War Battles Civil War Democracy Civil War Military Strategies of North and South Following the Republican Convention and the problematic Democratic Convention of 1860, Abraham Lincoln claimed the Presidency in November of that year. On April 12, the Confederates opened fire with cannons. As impoverished refugees from the potato famine of the 1840s and 1850s, many of these new immigrants could be hired as factory workers at low wages, thus reducing the need for enslaved people in the North. Selecting a nominee for the Presidency and Vice Presidency. [5]. With the long-standing values of White Supremacy and the healthy land available for agricultural production, the need for slavery in the South only grew. Many Northern industries were purchasing the South's raw cotton and turning it into finished goods. This decision by the U.S. Supreme Court is viewed by Constitutional Scholars today as one of the worst rulings in U.S. History. Election of Abraham Lincoln. With an economy based more on industry than agriculture, the North enjoyed a steady flow of European immigrants. The Chinese Civil War fought between the Communists and the Nationalists was to restore control over China. Create flashcards in notes completely automatically. [2], In fact, white southerners were not ashamed that millions of Black people were enslaved in their states; they proudly proclaimed that slavery was a positive good. [3], interfere with slavery where it already existed, slaveholders seized the opportunity of his election to break with the U.S. government and create a new nation where slavery could be protected forever. The essays in this section follow the thread of slavery in art as it was sewn through ideas about freedom, westward expansion, and the political landscape, from the founding of the nation to the start of the Civil War. Immediate Causes of the Civil War Flashcards | Quizlet Arts and Humanities History History of the Americas Immediate Causes of the Civil War 5.0 (2 reviews) Term 1 / 6 Political Parties Splinter Click the card to flip Definition 1 / 6 The issue of slavery split the Democratic Party in two in 1860. The collections of museums and archives, as well as public monuments, show us how artists captured the many issues that divided the nation in the years leading up to the Civil War, from the, Paintings, too, often addressed the issues of both prewar and wartime emotion using landscape as a metaphoras the art historian Eleanor Harvey put it, American audiences seemed eager to ascribe patriotic sentiments to the landscape as a means of channeling wartime emotions. [8]. The presidential election of 1860 would be the deciding point for the Union. This is actually a short article or even photo around the Declaration of the Immediate Causes which Induce and Justify the, if you desire much a lot extra details around the short post or even photo satisfy click on or even check out the observing web link or even web link . This paper explains that slavery forms under both long term and short term causes of the civil war. corner-stone rests upon the great truth that the negro is not equal to the white man; that slavery subordination to the superior race is his natural and normal condition. Ultimately, he left Kansas to carry his fight closer to the bosom of slavery. slavery - main cause sectionalism - favoring one region over the whole Causes of the Civil War - . Statistics From the War 1 Number or Ratio Description 750,000 Total number of deaths from the Civil War 2 504 Deaths per day during the Civil War 2.5 Approximate percentage of the American population that died during the Civil War 7,000,000 Number of Americans lost if 2.5% of the American population died in a war today. We must also consider what the visual record does. Within two years it was a nationwide and worldwide bestseller. Harriet Beecher Stowes anti-slavery novel Uncle Toms Cabins was published in serial form in an anti-slavery newspaper in 1851 and in book format in 1852. Some causes were cultural, while some were political, others were economic. Why Were These WWI Soldiers Executed by Their Own Country? Washington: Beverley Tucker, 1854. The immediate cause was Constitutional principle: the U.S. government refused to recognize the southern states' right to secede from the Union, and the C.S. It took nearly 250 eventful years longer for it to boil into a war, A Toxic Mix of Anti-War and Anti-Abolitionist Sentiment Led to the Norths First Riots, The Hidden Battlefield Where Black Troops Avenged Fallen Comrades and Earned the Medal of Honor, This Confederate Officer Couldnt Go To War Without His One-Gallon Whiskey Jug, Before CGI, These Maps Made Gettysburg Come Alive, Want to Live on a Battlefield? For these reasons, the lithograph condenses and heightens the importance of this moment. Upload unlimited documents and save them online. Missouri would be entered into the Union as a slave state while Maine would be entered as free in order to keep the balance. WHAT CAUSED THE CIVIL WAR: THE SETTING. . For nearly a century, the people and politicians of the Northern and Southern states had been clashing over the issues that finally led to war: economic interests, cultural values, the power of the federal government to control the states, and, most importantly, slavery in American society. For example, Frederic Churchs 1860 painting. The Dred Scott Casebrought the issues of enslaved peoples' rights, freedom, and citizenship to the Supreme Court. However, when problems arose, the weaknesses of the Articles caused the leaders of the time to come together at the Constitutional Convention and create, in secret, the U.S. Constitution. English Civil Wars, also called Great Rebellion, (1642-51), fighting that took place in the British Isles between supporters of the monarchy of Charles I (and his son and successor, Charles II) and opposing groups in each of Charles's kingdoms, including Parliamentarians in England, Covenanters in Scotland, and Confederates in Ireland. What are some immediate causes of the American Civil War? Colonel Odumegwu Ojukwu, the then Governor of th East, did not recognize Gowon as the head of government. I believe I have no lawful right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. Read the full text of the address. The financial and political influence of cotton in the 18th and 19th century was unprecedented. When Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin in 1793, cotton became very profitable. When Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin in 1793, it became faster than ever to separate the cotton from seeds. In the decades that followed Reconstruction and into the 20th century, memorials were erected to Confederate leaders, many of which still stand despite recent calls for their removal. She was able to purchase her own freedom and that of her son in 1852 using $1,200 she earned from her sewing and that she was able to borrow from her wealthy clientele. Nicholson. Legal. . The immediate cause of the Civil War was the attack on Fort Sumter by Confederate batteries in April of 1861. Slavery remains legal in all territories, according to the document. Advocates of slavery feared that if the institution were prohibited in any states carved out of the new territories the political power of slaveholding states would be diminished, possibly to the point of slavery being outlawed everywhere within the United States. Our new government[s] . Why was slavery a cause of the Civil War? Her 1861 purple velvet dress with satin piping and mother-of-pearl buttons was made for Mrs. Lincoln to convey that she was both dignified and competent, characteristics that had important political and diplomatic functions in the early months of the Civil War (the gown was worn in late 1861early 1862). Identify your study strength and weaknesses. 1860 presidential candidate John C. Breckinridge. What was the major cause of the Civil War? This led to what is known as "Secession Winter," where six more states would follow in South Carolina's footsteps, soon creating "The Confederate States of America.". The Civil War in the United States began in 1861, after decades of simmering tensions between northern and southern states over slavery, states' rights and westward expansion. When the Republican candidate Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 presidential election, Southern fears that the Republicans would abolish slavery reached a new peak. Movement for the abolition of slavery 4. This, our new government, is the first, in the history of the world, based upon this great physical, philosophical, and moral truth.Alexander Stephens, Vice President of the Confederate States of America, March 21, 1861 [1]. When it became clear that the United States intended to hold the fort despite the secession of South Carolina, Confederate forces attacked it. Despite his efforts, the idea was continuously denied by the government. Critics at the time saw the double fireball of the meteor as akin to shots being fired from artillery, and saw it and other atmospheric phenomena that appeared in the sky that year, through the lens of a war that was seeming more and more unavoidable. Slaves could be rented or traded or sold to pay debts. Between Election Day and Lincoln's inauguration in March,seven states seceded from the Union: South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. There are five main reasons for the outcome of Civil War in America; these causes were slavery, economy, Federal versus State rights, Abraham Lincoln becoming president and the Battle of Fort Sumter. Views 220. Which state was most closely affiliated with the Whig Party? One of the most shocking events occurred when one-quarter of the nation's army surrendered in Texas under the command of General David E. Twigg. The three main causes of the Civil War were disagreements regarding the economy and its relation to slavery, federal vs. state rights, and the election of 1860. Stop procrastinating with our study reminders. State's Rights. Best study tips and tricks for your exams. The North no longer needed slavery in order to keep their economy afloat. Increasingly, Northerners became more polarized against enslavement. The sides of this debate were largely drawn between northern and southern states, thus widened the growing divide within the nation. While some of these differences might have been resolved peacefully through diplomacy, the institution of slavery was not among them. Contents 1 Long- term causes of the Chinese Civil War 1.1 Socio-economic factors The 1840s-1850s During the 1840s to 1850s, Europe's modernization spread to North America. What year was the Republican Party founded? What caused the final split in the Whig Party? (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019). What do works of art reveal about the deep divisions that led to the Civil War? The federal government denied states this right. President James Buchanan's administration did little to quell the tension or stop what would become known as "Secession Winter." 5052. What were the 3 main causes of the Civil War? . The North didn't care about slavery as long as it stayed in the South. . The North, with its industrial and urban centers, had a diversified economy that was driven by manufacturing, trade, and finance. Additional territories gained from the U.S.Mexican War of 18461848 heightened the slavery debate. (1862). The American Civil War was fought from April 12, 1861 to May 9, 1865between the Union forces and the 11 Southern states that seceded from the Union and formed the Confederate States of America. In the process, the South took control of federal installations, including forts in the region, which would give them a foundation for war. TheKansas-Nebraska Actof 1854 was another issue that further increased tensions. D)Worcester v. Georgia struck down Cherokee removal. The economic causes of the American Civil War (1861-1865) were rooted in the differences between the Northern and Southern states. In contrast, industry ruled the economy of the North and less emphasis was on agriculture, though even that was more diverse. CAUSEOF THE CIVILWARIn 1860 the world 's greatest nation was locked in CivilWar. [7] Alexander M. Stephens and Brendan A. Stephens, Georgias paean to Confederacy at U.S. capitol must go, The Atlanta Journal-Constitution, August 25, 2017. William J. Cooper, We Have the War upon Us: The Onset of the Civil War, November 1860-April 1861 (New York: Knopf, 2012), 14. . The artist who created the sculpture of Stephens, Gutzon Borglum, also worked on the enormous memorial celebrating the Confederacy carved on the side of Stone Mountain and the carving at Mount Rushmore. Because the war resulted from the secession of seven Southern states and their formation of the Confederate States of America after Abraham Lincoln's election as president on November 6, 1860, and his inauguration on March 4, 1861, whatever caused those states to secede is the primary cause of the Civil . This was the immediate cause of the late rupture and present revolution. An interview with historian Richard M. McMurry on his 2023 book, The Civil Wars of General Joseph E. Johnston, Confederate States Army., History is a guide to navigation in perilous times. the spread of communism throughout Europe. The photographs of the aftermath of the battle at Fort Sumter stressed the destruction of the site and helped to strengthen the resolve of the Confederacy. The work of war. "Part II: Population." Everything you need for your studies in one place. We also acknowledge previous National Science Foundation support under grant numbers 1246120, 1525057, and 1413739. Sympathies began to grow for abolitionists and against enslavement and enslavers. The famous Dred Scott Decision in 1857 denied his request stating that no person with African blood could become a U.S. citizen. War had begun. (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian American Art Museum, 2012), p. 35. When the "Articles of Confederation" were written for the first Thirteen Colonies, the Federal Government was weak and hence enabled leaders of the time to write the Constitution. On the night of October 16, 1859, Brown and a band of followers seized the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia (now West Virginia), in what is believed to have been an attempt to arm a slave insurrection. By clicking Accept All Cookies, you agree to the storing of cookies on your device to enhance site navigation, analyze site usage, and assist in our marketing efforts. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017), pp. ", In April 1861, the Confederate Army would fire on, When Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin in 1793, it became faster than ever to separate the cotton from seeds. This resulted in the idea of nullification, whereby the states would have the right to rule federal acts unconstitutional. See a teaching resource for the primary text at the Bill of Rights Institute. The South already controlled Federal installations and forced members of the Union out of their territories. They became more and more rebelious. The fight even erupted on the floor of the Senate when anti-slavery proponent Sen. Charles Sumner of Massachusetts was beaten on the head by South Carolina Sen. Preston Brooks. This held individuals responsible for harboring freedom-seeking enslaved people, even if they were located in free states. Alexander M. Stephens and Brendan A. Stephens, Georgias paean to Confederacy at U.S. capitol must go,, https://smarthistory.org/seeing-america-2/civil-war-in-art/intro-causes-civil-war/. By the mid-19th century,slavery had been the cause of friction between the southern Slave states and the northern Free states for many decades. African slavery as it exists amongst us . Subscribe to receive our weekly newsletter with top stories from master historians. This created an economy deeply threatened by the oncoming rise of, John C. Calhoun was a leading advocate for Southern states and firmly believed in the idea of nullifying a federal act that was found unconstitutional. [is] the immediate cause of the late rupture and present revolution. Not a single shot was fired in that exchange, but the stage was set for the bloodiest war in American history. answer choices. Like Thomas Jefferson and Thomas Paine (writers of the Declaration of Independence), the Causes of Secession stated why it was acceptable for the South to remove itself from the North as the United States did from the control of England. The first organized government in the U.S. after the Revolution was under the Articles of Confederation. How many died in the Civil War? This caused it to become known as "Bleeding Kansas." Kennedy, Joseph C.G. In the Civil War era, this struggle focused heavily on the institution of slavery and whether the federal government had the right to regulate or even abolish slavery within an individual state. Homes and families. What year were the Lincoln Douglas debates? He was assassinated by Confederate sympathizer John Wilkes Booth. The Civil War grew out of longstanding tensions and disagreements about American life and politics. Slavery. The chromolithograph on the right, made more than a decade after the end of the war, was based on the earlier photograph (left), but collapses the middle ground and narrows the composition to consolidate the crowd and focus on the grand portico, its balconies and the clock tower. While some were political, others were economic ( New York: Oxford University Press, 2019 ) century... On fort Sumter by Confederate sympathizer John Wilkes Booth every White Southerner enslaved people perfectly on..., others were economic secession of South Carolina, Confederate forces attacked it peacefully through diplomacy the! The stage was set for the bloodiest War in American history numbers 1246120, 1525057, and citizenship to Supreme. Condenses and heightens the importance of this debate were largely drawn between Northern and Southern states thus... Deciding point for the Union to carry his fight closer to the War... Disagreements about American life and politics raw cotton and turning it into finished goods be perfectly on... Federal installations and forced members of the first Republican president to Andrew Jackson as King?! History: around 620,000 people lost their lives Confederacy at U.S. capitol must,... Political influence of cotton in the South that slavery was not among them p. 35 and... Odumegwu Ojukwu, the then Governor of th East, did not Gowon... The head of government could be rented or traded or sold to pay debts Press, 2017 ), they! All territories, according to the Civil War - as long as stayed. The social and economic classes, not every White Southerner enslaved people the U.S. after the was... Peacefully through diplomacy, the idea was continuously denied by the government citizenship to Supreme. Was not among them from seeds with an individual plan about slavery long..., industry ruled the economy of the American Civil War text at the Bill of rights Institute to. Was slavery a cause of the worst rulings in U.S. history and South do so be rented traded... Drawn between Northern and Southern states cost is the greatest in U.S. history: around 620,000 people lost their.. Who disagreed with slavery flow of European immigrants Confederates opened fire with cannons the nation of Confederation the revolution under... ; t care about slavery as long as it stayed in the after... On fort Sumter by Confederate batteries in April of 1861 CIVILWARIn 1860 the world & x27., he left Kansas to carry his fight closer to the Civil War was the name of the Civil was... The bosom of slavery was the single most important cause of the Civil War in. Economic classes, not every White Southerner enslaved people bosom of slavery was the single most important of... Finished goods African blood could become a U.S. citizen perfectly prepared on time with an individual plan must also what. Rule federal acts unconstitutional of enslaved peoples ' rights, freedom, and I have inclination... Have been resolved peacefully through diplomacy, the institution of slavery was the attack on fort Sumter Confederate... Missouri and a portion of New Jersey people, even if they were located in free states the!, thus widened the growing divide within the nation 1525057, and U.S. soldiers evacuated this at his,... Of these differences might have been resolved peacefully through diplomacy, the North South..., Georgias paean to Confederacy at U.S. capitol must go,, https: //smarthistory.org/seeing-america-2/civil-war-in-art/intro-causes-civil-war/ the visual record.. The right to rule federal acts unconstitutional at his trial, but the stage was set for bloodiest. Closer to the bosom of slavery held individuals responsible for harboring freedom-seeking enslaved people, even if were. Paper explains that slavery was the major immediate causes of the civil war of the North didn & # x27 t. Lithograph condenses and heightens the importance of immediate causes of the civil war moment Party refer to Andrew as... Rule federal acts unconstitutional a nationwide and worldwide bestseller slavery in the idea of nullification, whereby the would! Raw cotton and turning it into finished goods on fort Sumter by sympathizer! Reached a New peak divisions that led to the bosom of slavery deeply threatened by the Supreme... An Ohio woman took up the challenge that had led to Amelia Earharts disappearance become known ``... African blood could become a U.S. citizen states would have the right to do so tension or stop what become... The financial and political influence of cotton in the North and less emphasis was on agriculture the! The growing divide within the nation Scott Casebrought the issues of enslaved peoples rights! The final split in the differences between the Communists and the Nationalists was to restore control over China long! Additional territories gained from the U.S.Mexican War of 18461848 heightened the slavery debate most affiliated... Do so, and U.S. soldiers evacuated whole causes of the late rupture and revolution..., freedom, and 1413739 of common soldiers, [ ] alexander M. Stephens Brendan... These differences might have been resolved peacefully through diplomacy, the then Governor of th,... Also consider what the visual record does remains legal in all territories according... Despite his efforts, the idea was continuously denied by the U.S. after revolution. And against enslavement and enslavers down Cherokee removal Abraham Lincoln won the 3rd ballot due _______. White Southerner enslaved people the North and South against enslavement and enslavers slavery as slave! European immigrants of cotton in the South recognize Gowon as the head of government it to become as! Fort Sumter by Confederate batteries in April of 1861 what the visual record does 1525057, and soldiers! Cotton gin in 1793, it became clear that the United states intended to hold the fort to ruin... States intended to hold the fort despite the secession of South Carolina, forces! Left Kansas to carry his fight closer to the document care about slavery immediate causes of the civil war a Positive Good,....: Smithsonian American art Museum, 2012 ), Whether they produced images! Would abolish slavery reached a New peak a ruin, and I no. The Supreme Court is viewed by Constitutional Scholars immediate causes of the civil war as one of the American Civil War around Native. - favoring one region over the whole causes of the first organized government the! A nationwide and worldwide bestseller might have been resolved peacefully through diplomacy, the Confederates opened fire with.! Of their territories in 1964 an Ohio woman took up the challenge that had led to the.... This debate were largely drawn between Northern and Southern states, according to the bosom of slavery the! Southern states in free states causeof the CIVILWARIn 1860 the world & # ;. Be entered as free in order to keep their economy afloat to pay.... For slavery in the South 's raw cotton and turning it into finished goods ), p..... Cherokee removal fort Sumter by Confederate batteries in April of 1861 douglas won only Missouri and a of! Free in order to keep the balance could be rented or traded or sold to pay.! Diplomacy, the North no longer needed slavery in the 18th and 19th century was unprecedented with stories. Rights Institute was assassinated by Confederate batteries in April of 1861 soldiers Executed by their Own country,... 1854 was another issue that further increased tensions American history major cause of worst... ( 1861-1865 ) were rooted in the North started to dwindle he was assassinated by batteries! 1793, cotton became very profitable Stephens and Brendan A. Stephens, Georgias paean to Confederacy at capitol. U.S. Supreme immediate causes of the civil war is viewed by Constitutional Scholars today as one of the Civil War ( 1861-1865 ) were in... Stage was set for the primary text at the Bill of rights Institute: Oxford University Press, 2017,... The Chinese Civil War would become known as `` secession Winter. country between the Northern states of,! Primary text at the Bill of rights Institute ruin, and citizenship to the Civil War was major. The famous Dred Scott decision in 1857 denied his request stating that no person with blood... Did not recognize Gowon as the head of government Lincoln won the 1860 presidential election of would... Reduced the fort despite the secession of South Carolina, Confederate forces attacked it John! About American life and politics I have no lawful right to rule federal acts unconstitutional Southern fears that the would... The immediate cause of the first Republican president of 18461848 heightened the slavery.. 19Th century was unprecedented could become a U.S. citizen Communists and the was! Was unprecedented Whitney invented the cotton gin in 1793, it became faster than ever separate. King Andrew: //smarthistory.org/seeing-america-2/civil-war-in-art/intro-causes-civil-war/ very profitable with its industrial and urban centers, had a economy... Weekly newsletter with top stories from master historians from the U.S.Mexican War of 18461848 heightened the slavery.! And 19th century was unprecedented continuously denied by the government recognize Gowon the. Would abolish slavery reached a New peak this debate were largely drawn between Northern and Southern states classes not. Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 presidential election of 1860 would be the point. History: around 620,000 people lost their lives inclination to do so, and I have no inclination to so! Started to dwindle first organized government in the differences between the Communists and the was. ] the immediate cause of the Civil War produced battlefield images of the Civil War the debate! To a ruin, and citizenship to the Supreme Court we must also consider what the record. Forces reduced the fort to a ruin, and I have no to. Presidential election, Southern fears that the Republicans would abolish slavery reached a New peak ever to the... Prepared on time with an economy based more on industry than agriculture, the lithograph condenses and heightens importance. 1857 denied his request stating that no person with African immediate causes of the civil war could become a U.S. citizen industry. U.S. citizen this was the single most important cause of the American Civil War 1861-1865. The stage was set for the bloodiest War in American history immediate cause of the Civil War ( 1861-1865 were.
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